I. Introduction
Conflict between European kingdoms led to an interest in colonies and trading posts that might strengthen the emerging nations. This expansionism introduced Europeans to African and American societies that had evolved over centuries, and the cultural interaction that followed initial contacts between these civilizations profoundly influenced western history.
II. American Societies
1. Paleo-Americans
Paleo-Americans arrived about twenty-eight thousand years ago and survived by
hunting large game. As the prehistoric animals disappeared, however, people grew
more dependent on agriculture, a change that allowed for the emergence of more
sophisticated civilizations.
2. Mesoamerican Civilizations
Early civilizations emerged in what is now Mexico as early as three thousand
years ago. A number of powerful and complex societies developed, including the
Olmecs, the Mayas, and the Aztecs.
III. North America in 1492
1. Sexual Division of Labor in America
The nomadic tribes assigned the task of hunting to men, while women prepared the
food, made clothing, and raised children. In the agricultural tribes of the
West, the men farmed, but in the East women performed that task.
2. Indians' Politics and Religion
Indian leadership reflected a widespread democracy, but political structure,
including the role of women, varied widely from tribe to tribe. Generally
polytheistic, Indian religion was more varied than their politics.
IV. African Societies
1. West Africa (Guinea)
Most of the enslaved Africans that came to America originated in West Africa, or
Guinea. Upper Guinea had a culture that reflected contact with the Islamic
Mediterranean region, while Lower Guinea remained less cosmopolitan.
2. Sexual Division of Labor in West Africa
In West Africa men and women shared agricultural duties, with the men also
hunting or herding while the women performed household tasks and managed local
commerce. In Lower Guinea, society developed based on the "dual-sex principle."
V. European Societies
1. Sexual Division of Labor in Europe
Males did most of the farming or herding; women concentrated on the household
and children. Men dominated European society, relegating females to positions of
inferiority.
2. Political and Technological Change
European leaders took advantage of the chaos resulting from the Black Plague and
the Hundred Years' War to engender nationalism as a means of consolidating
power. Along with this political innovation, technological changes shaped Europe
in the fifteenth century.
3. Motives for Exploration
Developments in Europe made possible an era of exploration designed both to gain
access to markets and to spread Christianity.
VI. Early European Explorations and the Columbus Voyages
1. Portugal
Iberian sailors, particularly the Portuguese, learned a great deal about wind
and ocean currents as they explored islands in the eastern Atlantic and as they
sailed along the west coast of Africa. They also learned that they could
establish colonies based on conquest, exploitation, and slavery.
2. Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus sailed west in an effort to reach Asia, but he encountered
the Caribbean instead. Columbus displayed the European inclination to exploit
the "new" continents, a propensity confirmed by the Treaty of Tordesillas, which
divided the non- European world between Spain and Portugal.
3. Other Explorers
Leif Ericson had established a short-lived settlement in modern Newfoundland in
the year 1001, but John Cabot deserves credit for the first formal exploration
of the continent's northern coast. Other mariners added to Europe's knowledge of
the Western Hemisphere.
VII. Spanish Colonization and me Exchange of Plants, Animals, and Diseases
1. Killer Diseases
Hundreds of thousands of Native Americans died from European diseases,
particularly smallpox, to which they had no immunity. Syphilis apparently
traveled from America to Europe, with the first recorded case occurring in 1493.
2. Flora and Fauna
A great transfer of plants and animals took place between the Old World and the
New. Generally, Europeans introduced animals, most notably horses, to the
Western Hemi-sphere, while Indians introduced a number of plants, including
tobacco, to the explorers.
3. Conquistadores
Spanish conquerors established a colonial system that stressed strict royal
control, the predominance of male settlers, and exploitation of Americans and
Africans. The Spaniards extracted great wealth from their colonies, to the
detriment of botb the American and the Spanish cultures.
4. Spanish Friars
Franciscan and Dominican friars established a number of missions, including
several in modern Florida, to Christianize Native Americans. The clerics'
efforts met with varying levels of success.
VIII. European Traders, Fishermen, and Early Settlements
1. Northern Traders
Rich fishing banks off the coast of North America attracted many Europeans to
the New World. The English, who went ashore to dry their catches, also developed
a lucrative fur trade with the Indians.
2. Virginia
Geopolitical conflict with Spain led England to desire colonies in North
America. Early efforts to settle the region they called Virginia, however, had
disastrous results.
I. Introduction
Europeans arrived in North America for a variety of reasons. The English, however, hoped to recreate the society they had left behind, with some reforms and improvements. In any case, Europeans enjoyed little success until they adapted to the alien environment and developed viable relations with Native Americans and with each other.
II. New France, New Netherlands, and the Caribbean
1. New France
By the middle of the seventeenth century, France had founded Quebec and
Montreal, outposts that served as that nation's claim to what is now Canada.
2. Jesuit Missions in New France
Friars from the Society of Jesus eventually converted thousands of natives to
the Catholic faith and introduced them to European culture.
3. New Netherland
In 1614, the Dutch established a post near present Albany, New York. The
presence of the Dutch traders helped spawn competition, and war, among me
various tribes.
4. The Caribbean
The Caribbean provided the area of greatest conflict between European powers,
especially as the lucrative sugar industry emerged in the region.
III. England Colonizes Mainland North America
1. English Reformation
The English Reformation, which King Henry VIII initiated in 1533, set the stage
for large numbers of English dissenters to leave their homeland.
2. Puritans
Conflict between the Stuart monarchs and dissenters called Puritans caused
thousands of Settlers to leave England in the 1630s.
3. Social Change in America
In addition to the religious transformation in England, dramatic social and
economic changes encouraged migration to the New World.
4. Joint-Stock Companies
English investors established joint-stock companies to finance early
colonization projects. These forerunners of modern corporations enjoyed limited
success in providing the vast long-term investment funds necessary for
colonization.
5. Founding of-Virginia
Great difficulties beset Jamestown, the first permanent settlement in Virginia.
6. Powhatan Confederacy
Jamestown survived largely as a result of aid from the Algonkian Indians, but
problems arose between the Englishmen and members of the Powhatan Confederacy.
7. Algonkian and English Cultural Differences
The Indians and the Europeans had many differing views, but the Englishmen's
attitude of cultural superiority led to the greatest problems between the two
peoples.
8. Tobacco: The Basis of Virginia's Success
Tobacco provided Virginia with a cash crop that guaranteed the colony's
survival.
IV. Life in the Chesapeake: Virginia and Maryland
1. Founding of Maryland
Maryland, founded in 1632, mirrored Virginia in many ways. One important
difference set Maryland apart: the colony tolerated all Christian faiths and
therefore served as a haven for Catholics.
2. Migrants to the Chesapeake
Tobacco cultivation required a large labor force, a need met by bringing
indentured servants to the colonies. Life for these migrants proved difficult,
but opportunities existed for those who fulfilled their contracts
3. Family Life in the Chesapeake
The predominance of males, the economic conditions, and high mortality rates in
the Chesapeake led to fewer, smaller, and shorter-lived families in Virginia and
Maryland.
4. Chesapeake Politics
A native-born elite with local ties and interests failed to emerge in Virginia
and Mary- land, leading to political instability.
V. The Founding of New England
1. Puritans' Beliefs
Puritans believed in an omnipotent God who had predestined some people for
salvation and some for damnation.
2. Founding of Plymouth
Separatists, who wanted to leave the Church of England, arrived in America in
1620.
3. Founding of Massachusetts Bay
When Charles I ascended to the throne in 1625 his and-Puritan policy led
thousands of Congregationalists to leave England for America.
4. Governor John Winthrop
John Winthrop, first elected governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629,
envisioned a communal society based on Christian charity that put the common
good before the needs of the individual.
5. Idea of a Covenant
The concept of covenant permeated Puritan society. This faith in mutual consent
manifested itself in the colony's political institutions.
6. New England Towns
Puritan ideas influenced land distribution in the New England colonies.
Massachusetts often gave land to groups rather than to individuals, grants that
led to the growth of communities rather than to large personal holdings
7. Pequot War
English migration into the Connecticut valley spawned conflict with the Pequot
tribe.
8. Puritan and Jesuit Missions Compared
In New England, cultural assimilation remained limited, and Jesuit missions in
New France enjoyed more success than did Puritan missions in New England.
VI. Life in New England
1. New England and the Chesapeake Compared
Puritans developed a more heterogeneous and healthier population than did
settlers in the Chesapeake, resulting in large, long-lived families.
2. Family Life in New England
Big families, religious intolerance, and strict morality characterized life in
New En- gland.
3. Roger Williams
Roger Williams advocated Indians' rights, separation of church and state, and
religious tolerance. In 1635, he founded the town of Providence in what became
Rhode Island.
4. Anne Hutchinson
Anne Hutchinson emphasized the covenant of grace and direct communication with
God. Her ideas threatened Puritan religious orthodoxy and traditional gender
relationships.
I. Introduction
Between 1640 and 1720, the mainland colonies became increasingly involved in a net- work of trade and international contacts that led to territorial expansion and economic growth. The introduction of slavery, changing relations with England, and conflicts with their neighbors shaped this colonial development.
II. The English Civil War, the Stuart Restoration, and the American Colonies
1. New Netherland Becomes New York
Charles gave his younger brother, the duke of York, claim to the area the Dutch
had previously settled as New Netherland.
2. Founding of New Jersey
The duke of York regranted much of his land to two friends, thereby limiting Uje
geographical extent and economic growth of New York.
3. Pennsylvania: A Quaker Haven
Charles 11 gave William Penn a grant in 1663 to repay a debt he owed Penn's
father. A leading member of tbe Society of Friends, William Penn sought to
establish a tolerant, humane, and dynamic colony.
4. Foundling of Carolina
Charles chartered Carolina in 1663. The northern region remained linked to
Virginia and developed differently than did the area around Charleston.
III. The Forced Migration of Africans
1. Slavery Established
Mainland colonists began the large-scale importation of Africans in the 1670s,
at first bringing slaves in from the Caribbean islands but eventually carrying
them directly from Africa.
2. West Africa and The Slave Trade
West Africa experienced profound demographic changes because of the slave trade.
Also, some African kings consolidated their political power as a result of the
role they played in the commerce.
3. The Middle Passage
England eventually came to control the Middle Passage-the voyage from Africa to
America. This element of the trade proved particularly deadly, with high
percentages of black slaves and white overseers dying in Africa or at sea.
4. Slavery in the Chesapeake
By 1710, Africans made up twenty percent of the population in the Chesapeake.
This concentration of slaves influenced the economic activities, demographic
patterns, and social values of the region.
5. Slaves in South Carolina
The large number of slaves in South Carolina, along with similarities in the
climates of West Africa and the colony, helped ensure the survival of African
culture.
6. Slavery in the North
Different labor needs restricted the emergence of slavery in the northern
colonies. The absence of large members of Africans in the North accentuated
regional differences.
IV. Relations Between Europeans and Indians
1. Pope and the Pueblo Revolt
Resentment over Spanish treatment led a shaman named Pope to lead a revolt among
the Pueblo Indians in 168(), This uprising was the most successful Indian
resistance in North America.
2. Indian Slave Trade
In South Carolina, Indians played an important role in the lucrative pelt trade,
but the natives themselves often became commodities. Bitterness over this trade
in Indian slaves spawned the violent Yamasee War.
3. Founding of Georgia
Founded in 1732, Georgia served as a haven for debtors that also provided a
garrison colony to protect England's southernmost claims on the North American
mainland.
4. Iroquois Confederacy
In what became the northeastern United States, the Iroquois Confederacy exerted
great influence. Competition for European trade sparked a series of wars in the
region that lasted until 1701.
5. French Expansion
The French claimed the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley, and they
established New Orleans in an effort to guarantee their domain.
6. Bacon's Rebellion
Conflict between English settlers and Indians in Virginia turned into a
political struggle between Nathaniel Bacon and Governor William Berkeley.
7. King Philip's War
Concerned by the encroachment of English settlers, Metacomet (King Philip) led a
bloody war in New England in 1675-1676.
V. New England and the Web of Imperial Trade
1. Population Pressures
New England's population grew rapidly in the late seventeenth century, leading
to social and economic changes.
2. Halfway Covenant
In 1662, Puritan ministers issued a statement of policy that became known as the
Halfway Covenant that defined me place of baptized but non-attending church
members in New England society.
3. New England's Trading System
Fish, grain, and wood products became the key commodities in New England's trade
with the Caribbean and England. Rum, manufactured in New England, was part of a
trade system involving Africa and the Caribbean.
4. Puritans and Anglicans
The increasing sophistication of the New England economy attracted a number of
Anglicans to the colony, touching off a degree of religious conflict.
5. Navigation Acts
Parliament sought to advance its mercantilist policies through a series of trade
laws passed between 1651 and 1673. These acts, which made England the center of
all trade, met with resistance in North America.
6. Board of Trade
In 1696, Parliament hoped to improve its administration over the colonies when
it established the Board of Trade and Plantations.
VI. Colonial Political Development and Imperial Reorganization
1. Colonial Political Structures
Each of the colonies generally had a governor, some form of council, and an
assembly. Local political institutions, such as town meetings or county courts,
also developed in America.
2. Dominion of New England
James II attempted to strengthen royal control by creating the Dominion of New
En-gland in 1686. News of the Glorious Revolution, however, encouraged New
Englanders to overthrow Governor Edmund Andros.
3. Glorious Revolution in America
James's successor, William II, asserted his own authority in the colonies, a
political measure complicated by war with France.
4. Witchcraft in Salem Village
A witch hunt broke out in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692. The intense but
short-lived incident reflected the social and political stresses of the day.
I. Introduction
After 1720, the American colonies expanded to cover most of the territory between the Atlantic coast and the Appalachian Mountains. Also, the population came to include a larger number of non-English people and a variety of ethnic groups and religious sects.
II. Population Growth and Economic Diversity
1. Newcomers from Africa
About two hundred and seventy-eight thousand Africans arrived on the mainland
during the eighteenth century, making them the largest ethnic or racial group
that came to the colonies.
2. Scotch-Irish, Germans, and Scots
The Irish-more than one hundred thousand of them constituted the largest group
of white non-English immigrants, followed by about eighty-five thousand Germans
and thirty-five thousand Scots.
III. Economic Growth and Development
1. Rising Standard of Living
Generally, the American economy improved, leading to a better standard of living
for many people. Economic stratification, on the other hand, also shaped social
and economic structures.
2. Urban Poverty
New immigrants usually faced fewer opportunities for advancement than had me
earliest arrivals. Although rural poverty remained limited, a poor class did
begin to emerge in urban areas.
3. New England and King George's War
King George's War increased the wealth of some New Englanders, but many
Bostonians suffered economically as a result of the conflict.
4. Prosperity of the Middle Colonies
King George's War spurred an economic boom in the Middle Colonies.
5. Lower South Trade Patterns
The South experienced several economic fluctuations.
IV. The Daily Lives of European Americans
1. Sexual Division of Labor Among White Americans
The majority of colonial families lived in rural areas, and any crafts or
services remained secondary to agricultural pursuits. Women performed "indoor
affairs," while the men undertook "outdoor affairs."
2. Rhythms of Rural Life
The seasons and the sun governed the activities of rural Americans. Isolation
and heavy workloads encouraged these folks to take advantage of every
opportunity to socialize.
3. Rhythms of Urban Life
Urban residents were less dependent on the seasons or the weather than were
rural Americans, and city dwellers also enjoyed relatively cosmopolitan
lifestyle.
4. Status of Women
Married women in the colonies fell under the English common-law doctrine of "coverture,"
which made them totally dependent on their husbands.
V. The Daily Lives of African Americans
1. Sexual Division of labor Among Slaves
Large plantations allowed for division of labor, and African Americans gained
skills that whites deemed appropriate to their sex.
2. Black Families
Slaves turned to their families to give them some control over their lives and
their culture. In many cases, these families enjoyed a degree of autonomy
3. Interracial Relations
The nature of chattel slavery guaranteed that interracial tensions existed under
even the best of circumstances.
VI. Colonial Culture
1.Oral Culture
The majority of British Americans could not read, and conversation provided the
primary means of communication. Consequently, the exchange of information
remained slow and restricted.
2. Religious Rituals
Many cultural identities grew out of public rituals, including attendance at
church. These gatherings reinforced local attitudes, mores, and hierarchies.
3. Civic Rituals
Important public rituals included church festivals, militia musters, and,
especially in the Chesapeake, court days and political events.
4. Attitudes Toward Education
Most colonials found little need for education, and public schooling remained
limited. Settlers often viewed secondary education to be more important as a
symbol of status than for the knowledge it provided.
5. The Enlightenment
In the seventeenth century, Europeans' fascination with natural law led to an
interest in learning known as the "Enlightenment." This movement affected
American culture and politics, particularly among the elite.
6. Elite Culture
Well-to-do American college graduates formed the core of a genteel elite that
helped define artistic preferences, social attitudes, and colonial politics.
7. Benjamin Franklin, the Symbolic American
Benjamin Franklin offered the perfect example of the self-made, self-educated
Ameri-can. Unlike Winthrop, Franklin stressed the importance of the individual.
VII. Politics and Religion: Stability and Crisis at Mid-century
1. Rise of the Assemblies
American political leaders sought to exert influence through increasingly
important assemblies. By the middle of me century, Americans expressed a belief
in balanced government, and they viewed the assembly as the representative of
the people.
2. Stono Rebellion
The first in a series of colonial crises occurred with the Stono Rebellion in
South Carolina in 1739, an uprising that led to stiffer laws regarding slaves.
3. Land Riots
Growing competition for good farmland resulted in a number of violent disputes
in New Jersey, New England, and along the Hudson River.
4. The Regulators
In the Carolinas, frontier people's unhappiness with the colonial governments
led to violence in the 1760s and 1770s.
5. First Great Awakening
The most widespread crisis took a religious form, called the Great Awakening,
that began in Massachusetts and spread throughout the colonies by the 1760s.
6. George Whitefield
George Whitefleld, a Methodist minister from England, played a key role in
spreading the excitement of the Great Awakening.
I. Introduction
An ever-widening split developed between America and England. The Seven Years' War played an important role in events, because the absence of the French altered relations between colonials and the English. Also, Britain levied taxes to pay for the war, and resistance to those taxes brought on the movement for independence.
II. Renewed Warfare Among Europeans and Indians
1. Iroquois Neutrality
During Queen Anne's War and King George's War, the Iroquois skillfully
maintained their neutrality. Conflict over the region west of the Iroquois,
however, touched off a war that spread from the colonies to Europe.
2. Albany Congress
In response to the French threat to the west, delegates from seven colonies met
in Albany, New York, in 1754. They failed to create an Iroquois alliance against
the French and they could not coordinate colonial defenses.
3. Seven Years' War
William Pitt enacted policies that brought about a British victory. As a result
of the Treaty of Paris, England gained Canada and Florida, and French holdings
west of the Mississippi went to Spain.
4. American Soldiers
The war meant that many Americans had their first prolonged contact with
Englishmen, an experience that taught them that the British were haughty and
disrespectful.
III. 1763: A Turning-point
1. Pontiac's Uprising
Angered over British policy, an Ottawa war chief named Pontiac led a violent
uprising against western forts and settlements. The Indians, defeated in battle
at Bushy Run, Pennsylvania, negotiated a treaty in 1766.
2. Proclamation of 1763
Pontiac's war showed the English the difficulties they faced in governing their
new f territories, and Parliament outlawed any settlement beyond the
Appalachians.
3. George III
George III turned to George Grenville to pay the huge debt incurred fighting the
French. Grenville believed the Americans should bear more of the cost of the
empire.
4. Theories of Representation
The English believed that Parliament collectively represented the people, while
Ameri-cans advocated individual representation. Americans also preferred limited
government, but many Englishmen insisted on tighter controls.
5. Sugar and Currency Acts
Many Americans believed that the Sugar and Currency Acts revealed the potential
threat from the government. Still, the laws met with feeble resistance in the
colonies
IV. The Stamp Act Crisis
1. Otis's Rights of the British Colonies
James Otis, Jr., cogent y argued that Americans had to obey English laws, and
many prepared reluctantly to accept the Stamp Act.
2. Patrick Henry and the Virginia Stamp Act Resolves
Patrick Henry proposed a series of resolutions protesting Parliament's policy
toward the colonies. Passed in a limited form, they revealed the difficulty
Americans faced in working out their relationship to Parliament.
3. Loyal Nine
In 1765, a Boston social club organized a demonstration against the Stamp Act
that succeeded in getting Andrew Oliver to promise not to collect the tax. This
victory encouraged a more violent demonstration against the governor, which met
with general disapproval,
4. Americans' Divergent Interests
The colonial elite wanted effective, but controlled, protest against unpopular
laws, Many people, however, felt empowered as they demonstrated, and they
expressed themselves in ways that often threatened local leaders.
5. Sons of Liberty
In an effort to channel resistance into an acceptable form, merchants and
artisans created the Sons of Liberty to protest the Stamp Act.
6. Repeal of the Stamp Act
Lord Rockingham withdrew the Stamp Act because he thought it divisive, but to
ensure the power of Parliament he also saw to passage of the Declaratory Act.
V. Resistance to the Townshend Duties
1. Massachusetts Assembly Dissolved
The Massachusetts assembly responded to the Townshend Acts with a suggestion of
joint protest. When representatives refused to follow Govemor Francis Bernard's
order to acquiesce, he dissolved the assembly.
2. Rituals of Resistance
Resistance leaders relied heavily on public rituals to gain the support of
illiterate Ameri-cans and to involve ordinary folks in the protests.
3. Daughters of Liberty
Women took an active role in the resistance by creating the Daughters of
Liberty. They also performed public rituals, such as spinning cloth and
denouncing tea, as expressions of their support for the American cause.
4. Divided Opinion over Boycotts
Differing economic interests led to a split in the alliance that had reacted to
the Stamp Act. In response to the Townshend Duties artisans mounted successful
boycotts, but their use of coercion angered many Americans.
5. Repeal of the Townshend Duties
A new prime minister, Lord North, persuaded Parliament to revoke duties on trade
within the empire. The Tea Tax and the other Townshend Acts remained in force,
but the repeal of taxes appeared to make the laws less offensive.
VI. Growing Rifts
1. Boston Massacre
On March 5, 1770, a group of soldiers facing an unruly crowd opened fire and
killed five Bostonians. Patriot leaders used this "massacre" as effective
propaganda, but they also worked to ensure a fair trial to keep the soldiers
from becoming martyrs for the loyalist cause.
2. Committees of Correspondence
When the North ministry took steps to enforce the Townshend Acts, Boston
Patriots created a Committee of Correspondence to publicize the move. The
Committee sought to establish a consensus that recognized the need to protect
American liberties.
VII. The Boston Tea Party
1. Tea Act
In May of 1773, Parliament approved a tea tax designed to save the East India
Company from bankruptcy. Patriots feared the subtle implications of the law, and
in Boston, protesters "disguised" as Indians dumped almost three hundred and
fifty chests of tea into the harbor.
I. Introduction
The American Revolution required patriot leaders to establish a coalition in favor of independence, to gain foreign recognition, and to triumph over the British army.
II. Government by Congress and Committee
1. First Continental Congress
The Congress had to define its grievances and define a plan of resistance. A
third goal-outlining constitutional relations with England-proved more
troublesome.
2. Declaration of Rights and Grievances
Delegates declared that the colonies would obey bona fide acts of Parliament.
Ameri-cans would not condone taxes in disguise, and Congress enacted a boycott
of England and demanded nonexportation of American goods.
3. Committees of Observation
Congress called for the creation of committees of observation and inspection to
enforce its economic proposals. These committees became de facto governments.
4. Provincial Committees
By the early spring of 1775, many colonial governments collapsed in the face of
patriot challenges to their authority.
III. Choosing Sides: Loyalists, Blacks, and Indians
1. Loyalists, Patriots, and Neutrals
About twenty percent of Americans remained loyal to England, forty percent chose
to be neutral, and forty percent supported independence.
2. The Blacks' Dilemma
Slaves generally sought to escape their bondage by supporting the English. The
fear of slave uprisings shaped events in the Caribbean and on the mainland.
3. Racial Composition and Patriotic Fervor
Colonies with the highest percentages of African Americans expressed the lowest
support for the revolution.
4. The Indians' Grievances
By 1775, Indians felt great resentment and bitterness toward Americans'
aggressive expansionism. Both the British and the Americans sought to maintain
Indian neutrality rather than active participation in the war.
5. Lack of Unity Among Indians
Some Shawnee and Cherokee tribes attacked settlements, but the Indians suffered
defeat. The Iroquois, like most tribes, followed policies of nonalignment.
IV. War Begins
1. Battles of Lexington and Concord
General Thomas Gage moved to confiscate weapons the patriots held. Militiamen
awaiting the British at Lexington and Concord drove the troops back to Boston
with heavy losses.
2. British Strategy
British leaders assumed, erroneously, that the Americans would not stand up to
profes-sional troops, that the English could fight a conventional war, and that
military victory would win the war.
3. Second continental Congress
The Second continental Congress quickly moved to establish a viable government.
One of its most important decisions resulted in the Continental Army.
4.George Washington:A portrait of Leadership
George Washington, commander-in-chief of the army, had attributes essential to
an American victory: moral integrity, physical stamina, and intense patriotism.
American victory: moral integrity, physical stamina, and intense patriotism
5. Thomas Paine's Common Sense
Thomas Paine stridently attacked English mistreatment of the colonies, and he
un-equivocally advocated creation of an independent republic. His popular book
helped many Americans accept separation from Britain.
6. Declaration of Independence
Congress approved the Declaration of Independence, which contained a list of
griev-ances against George 111 and a stirring statement of American political
ideals
V. The Long Struggle in the North
1. Battle for New York City
The American's faced potential disaster in defending New York. Although
Washington deserted the city, he managed to hold the core of the army together.
2. Battle of Trenton
British plundering of New Jersey rallied many reluctant Americans to the patriot
cause and convinced Washington to strike. Victories at Trenton and Princeton
cheered American spirits as the army settled in for the winter.
3. The American Army
The Continental Army included white and black troops, augmented by short-term
militiamen. Officers developed a powerful sense of pride and commitment to their
cause.
4. Howe Takes Philadelphia
Operating independently, Howe moved against Philadelphia in 1777, but logistical
delays and American resistance prevented him from gaining any real advantage
when he captured the city in September.
5. Burgoyne's Campaign in New York
General John Burgoyne suffered a disastrous defeat in 1777. He hope to divide
the colonies by marching through New York, but he was forced to surrender with
six thousand men near Saratoga on October 17.
6. Split of the Iroquois Confederacy
The Battle of Oriskany on August 6, 1777, revealed a split in the
three-hundred-year-old Iroquois Confederacy, Despite pledges of neutrality,
several tribes supported the British; others fought for the Americans.
7. Franco-American Alliance of 1778
The victory at Saratoga led to French recognition of American independence, and
a Treaty of Alliance brought France into the war in support of the new nation.
VI. The Long Struggle in the South
1. Fall of Charleston
Charleston fell in May 1780, but the English never really established control
over South Carolina, and they remained vulnerable to the French navy.
2. Greene Rallies South Carolina
Nathanael Greene assumed command of American forces in South Carolina, and he
instituted effective policies toward the British, loyalists, and Indians.
3. Surrender at Yorktown
Lord Cornwallis led his troops into Virginia and encamped at Yorktown, where
Ameri- can and French operations forced him to surrender.
4. Treaty of Paris
The war ended with a treaty signed on September 3, 1783. England recognized
indepen-dence, accepted the Atlantic Ocean, the Mississippi River, Canada, and
Florida as the American boundaries, and gave up fishing rights off of
Newfoundland.
I. Introduction
Americans sought to establish a republic based on the concepts of a representative govern-ment and a virtuous citizenry. Problems existed, however, because people understood the fragility of republics and they realized many problems needed resolution to ensure the survival of the nation.
II. Creating a Virtuous Republic
1. Varieties of Republicanism
Three definitions of republicanism emerged in the United States: one based on
classical political thinking, one that emphasized rational self-interest, and
one that called for broad popular participation.
2. Virtue and the Arts
Americans expected the republic to replace the corruption of Europe, and the
fine arts reflected people's faith in virtue.
3. Education Reform
Education served to inculcate virtue. In the North, public schools emerged, and,
throughout the nation, educational opportunities for girls improved.
4. Judith Sargent Murray on Education
Judith Sargent Murray argued that women and men had the same intellectual
capabilities. Her contentions reflected a postrevoludonary rethinking of
traditional gender roles.
5. Abigail Adams: "Remember the Ladies"
Abigail Adams advocated legal reform to protect the rights of married women.
Others wanted female suffrage.
6. Women's Role in the Republic
In the young republic, women assumed great responsibility for the welfare of the
community. This role allowed men to pursue more individualistic goals
III. Emancipation and the Growth of Racism
1. Gradual Emancipation
In the North, states outlawed slavery, but representatives favored gradual
emancipation In the South, legislators approved some reforms in the legal status
of slaves, but slavery remained entrenched.
2. Growth of the Free Black Population
Before the Revolution, there had been few free blacks, but by 1800 nearly
108,000 of them lived in the United States. Many of the African Americans
migrated to northeastern cities.
3. Discrimination Against African Americans
Free blacks faced pervasive discrimination, leading them to create their own
economic and social institutions.
4. Development of Racist Theory
To defend slavery in light of the Revolutionary idea that all men were equal,
southerners developed theories on the inherent inferiority of Africans and
African Americans
5. A Republic for Whites Only
Some scholars believe that racism emerged in the new republic because
discrimination against blacks enhanced the sense of equality for whites
IV. Designing Republican Governments
1. Drafting of State Constitutions
Reflecting their colonial experience, writers of state constitutions emphasized
the limits of power.
2. Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation established an unwieldy, sometime inefficient
government.
V. Trials of the Confederation
1. Financial Problems
Finances provided great difficulty for governments. Paper money retained its
value in 1776 but suffered severe devaluation by the end of the war.
2. Weaknesses in Foreign Affairs and Commerce
Congress could not enforce total compliance with the Treaty of Paris, it could
not meet the threat Spain posed to American borders, nor could it establish a
national commercial policy.
3. Encroachment on Indian Lands
The United States signed a series of treaties with the Indians in order to
validate government claims to tribal lands. Many tribes accepted these
agreements only in the face of America's overwhelming power.
4. Northwest Ordinances
Between 1784 and 1787, Congress passed ordinances that organized the Northwest
Territory, made the land available to settlers, and established the means of
establishing formal governments.
5. War in the Northwest
An Indian confederacy under Little Turtle scored major victories over American
troops in 1790 and 1791. An Indian defeat at Fallen Timbers led to a treaty that
opened up much of Ohio to settlement, but the accord also protected some Indian
claims.
VI. From Crisis to the Constitution
1. Economic Change
The inability of Congress to deal with economic concerns led Virginia to call a
conven-tion to discuss trade policy. The other states did not respond until
Shay's Rebellion convinced them of the need for sweeping changes.
2. Constitutional Convention
Delegates to the Constitutional Convention, held in Philadelphia, were generally
reform-minded property owners.
3. James Madison
James Madison gained recognition as the Father of the Constitution.
Well-prepared when he arrived in Philadelphia, he set forth the fundamental
concepts of checks and balances.
4. Virginia and New Jersey Plans
Virginians wanted a powerful central government. The New Jersey delegation
advo-cated a limited national authority. The convention spent much of its time
reconciling these positions.
5. Slavery and the Constitution
Delegates accepted a "three-fifths clause" to define the place of slaves in
regards to taxation and representation. This compromise, and several other
provisions, implicitly recognized the institution of slavery.
6. Separation of Powers
Separation of powers between the branches and levels of government is the
essential element of the Constitution.
VII. Opposition and Ratification
1. Ratification required the approval of special conventions in at least nine states. Those who favored the Constitution called themselves Federalists-tbe opposition became Antifederalists.
2. Antifederalists
Opponents of the Constitution feared the threat it posed to the states and to
the people. They advocated a bill of rights to protect individual liberties.
3. Ratification of the Constitution
The arguments presented in The Federalist and the promise of a bill of rights
led to its ratification of the Constitution with New York's approval on July 26,
1788.
I. Introduction
Americans assumed that the Constitution would create a consensus, but the nation still faced political, economic, and diplomatic questions that led to partisan politics during the 1790s.
II. Building a Workable Government
1. First Congress
The First Congress had the tasks of raising money, creating a bill of rights,
and organizing the branches of government.
2. Bill of Rights
James Madison took me lead in presenting me constitutional amendments the came
to be called tbe Bill of Rights.
3. Judiciary Act of 1789
Tbe Judiciary Act established a Supreme Court, defend federal jurisdiction,
created district and appeals courts, and allowed for appeals from state courts
to federal courts.
III. Domestic Policy Under Washington and Hamilton
1. Election of the First President
Washington, who received a unanimous electoral vote in 1788 and who understood
me importance his actions would have as precedents, moved cautiously at first.
2. Alexander Hamilton
Hamilton's zeal had attracted the favor of Washington, who appointed him
Secretary of the Treasury. Nationalism and cynicism shaped Hamilton's policies.
3. National Debt
Hamilton wanted me government to repay its debt at full value and to assume the
war debts of the states.
4. Hamilton's First Report on Public Credit
Hamilton hoped to extend the authority of the national government and gain the
support of securities holders.
5. First Bank of the United States
Hamilton advocated a national bank, touching off an intense constitutional
debate. His brilliant defense of what became known as "broad constructionism"
eventually assured creation of the bank.
6. Whiskey Rebellion
When farmers protested a federal tax on whiskey, which they distilled from their
grain, Washington forcefully demonstrated tbe strength of me national
government.
IV. Partisan Politics and Foreign Policy
1. Citizen Genet
Disagreements over the American response to me French Revolution led to
partisanship. Still, both sides agreed that the United States should remain
impartial when Citizen Edmund Genet called on President Washington.
2. Democratic-Republican Societies
Democratic-Republican Societies expressed opposition to administration policies
and thereby generated the first formal political dissent in the United States.
3. Jay Treaty
In 1794, John Jay negotiated a treaty with Great Britain in an effort to resolve
several difference5 between tbe two nations. The treaty faced strong opposition,
but eventually won me approval of Congress.
4. Republicans and Federalists
Republicans, generally from the southern and middle states, tended to be
optimistic, to espouse democracy, and to embrace individualism. Federalists,
mostly from New England, expressed more fears for the future and tended to come
from the commercial class.
5. Washington's Farewell Address
As he left of office, Washington encouraged Americans to maintain commercial
ties but not political relations with other nations and to avoid permanent
alliances.
6. Election of 1796
Federalist John Adams won the presidency in 1796, but the constitutional means
of determining a vice president led to the election of Thomas Jefferson
V. John Adams and Political Dissent
1. XYZ Affair
When Americans learned that French agents had demanded a bribe of American
nego-tiators, anti-French sentiment swept the United States.
2. Alien and Sedition Acts
Federalists hoped to capitalize politically on Americans' anger toward France by
passing four laws to suppress dissent and limit the growth of the Republican
party.
3. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
Jefferson and Madison responded to the Alien and Sedition Acts by claiming that
since a compact among the states created the Constitution the states could
review the constitutionality of federal actions.
4. Election of 1800
In the 1800 election, electoral procedures resulted in a tie between Jefferson
and Aaron Burr. The Federalist-dominated House of Representatives settled the
election in favor of Jefferson.
VI. Westward Expansion, Social Change, and Religious Ferment
1. White Settlement in the West
The area west of the Appalachian Mountains and south of the Ohio River developed
rapidly. Indian resistance delayed growth north of the Ohio
2. African Americans in the West
Slaves suffered from expansion, because slave owners could not take entire black
families west with them.
3. Second Great Awakening
In the west, evangelical Christians conducted camp meetings, the most famous of
which occurred at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, in 1801. Revivals spread throughout the
nation and greatly shaped American Protestantism.
4. Disestablishment of Religion
Dissenters successfully lead a movement to end tax support for churches.
5. Women and the Second Great Awakening
Changing roles for young women caused them to seek spiritual certainty in
religion. The Second Great Awakening thus greatly appealed to females.
6. Blacks and the Second Great Awakening
Slave owners feared the messages of harmony and equality inherent in the Second
Awakening. They also feared the influence of black preachers.
7. Gabriel's Rebellion
Gabriel Prosser led an unsuccessful revolt in Virginia that he hoped would bring
equal-ity for African Americans.
8. Iroquois Revival
Early in the nineteenth century, Iroquois Indians restored many of their
cultural traditions. On the other hand, the Indians had to embrace a white
economic system to survive.
I. Introduction
Thomas Jefferson's inauguration heralded a change from the Federalist-controlled govern-ment that had preceded. The nation's political system became better defined and its nationalistic and international positions grew clearer over the next two decades
II. Jefferson in Power
1. Jefferson's Inaugural Address
Jefferson sought to unite the nation with his inaugural address. He also wanted
to reduce expenditures and the debt and ensure Republican control of the
government.
2. Attacks on the Judiciary
Jefferson had Congress repeal the Judiciary Act of 1801. The Republican Congress
also impeached and removed Federal District Judge John Pickering. They could
not, how-ever, remove Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase.
3. John Marshall
As Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Marshall upheld federal supremacy
over the states and protected the interests of commerce and capital. Under
Marshall, the Court became an equal branch of the government.
4. Marbury v. Madison
In this case, John Marsha]l ended criticism that the Supreme Court functioned as
a partisan instrument. He also advanced the concept of judicial review,
enhancing the independence of the judiciary.
5. Louisiana Purchase
When the United States discovered that Spain had transferred the Louisiana
Territory to France, James Monroe joined Robert Livingston in France with orders
to buy New Orleans. Napoleon offered all 827,000 square miles of the Territory
to the United States for fifteen million dollars.
6. Lewis and Clark Expedition
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark's journey to the Pacific in 1803 brought
valuable information on the West to an expansion-minded United States.
III. Republicans Versus Federalists
1. Election of 1804
Jefferson carried fifteen of seventeen states in the 1804 election. This victory
ensured that popular campaigning and political organization would become an
essential part of the new style of democracy.
2. Younger Federalists
Several younger Federalists decided to emulate the political style of the
Republicans.
3. Hamilton-Burr Duel
In the famous duel, Burr killed Hamilton. Burr then conspired to create a
political empire in the Southwest. Tried for treason, he was acquitted and fled
to Europe.
IV. Preserving American Neutrality in a World at War
1. Impressment of American Sailors
Britain resorted to stopping American ships to remove deserters, although many
of them had become American citizens
2. Chesapeake Affair
In 1807, the crew of the H. M. S Leopard attacked and boarded the U. S. S.
Chesapeake in American waters. The incident led many Americans to demand war,
but Jefferson responded instead with economic coercion.
3. Embargo Act
The Embargo of 1807 forbade virtually all exports from the United States and
became extremely unpopular as the American economy collapsed.
4. Non-Intercourse Act
The Non-intercourse Act of 1809 resumed trade with all countries except Britain
and France. In 1810, Congress substituted Macon s Bill Number 2, which Napoleon
used trick the United States into declaring non-intercourse with Great Britain.
5. Shawnee Resistance
Before the War of 1812, Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Prophet attempted to
creation Indian federation. Prophet (Lalawetbika) claimed to have returned from
the dead, and he encouraged Indians not to fear whites.
6. Prophet and Tecumseh
Prophet and Tecumseh encouraged resistance. They sought, with British aid, to
unify northern and southern tribes.
V. The War of 1812
1. Recruiting an Army
Payroll and supply problems hampered recruiting efforts in the west, Many
Federalists considered the conflict to be "Mr. Madison's War," and raising an
army in New England also proved difficult.
2. Invasion of Canada
The British captured Fort Dearborn and turned back American troops north of
Niagara and near Lake Champlain, thwarting American efforts to invade Canada.
3. Naval Blockade
The Royal Navy blockaded the American coast, severely hampering the American
economy.
4. Great Lakes Campaign
Oliver Hazard Perry's victory gave the Americans control of Lake Erie and
allowed William Henry Harrison's forces to win the Battle of the Thames, killing
Tecumseh and crushing Indian unity.
5. Battle of New Orleans
Andrew Jackson became a national hero when his troops defeated six thousand
British soldiers near New Orleans. Ironically, the battle occurred two weeks
after diplomats had signed the Treaty of Ghent.
6. Treaty of Ghent
The treaty, signed on December 24, 1814, restored the status quo antebellum.
European conflicts had ended, so both sides could afford to accept the accord.
7. Results of War of 1812
The war brought a sense of nationalism and isolationism to Americans, it
destroyed Indian resistance, it exposed weaknesses in the national defense and
transportation systems, and it stimulated economic growth.
8. Hartford Convention
Made up of Federalist delegates from New England, the convention that met in
Hart-ford, Connecticut, in the winter of 1814-1815 endorsed radical changes to
the constitu-tion.
VI. Postwar Nationalism and Diplomacy
1. American System
Henry Clay's American System called for government stimulation of industry,
internal improvements, a national bank, and a protective tariff.
2. McCulloch v. Maryland
John Marshall reaffirmed the power of the national government in this case
regarding the Second Bank of the United States.
3. John Quincy Adams as Secretary of State
John Quincy Adams served brilliantly as Secretary of State.
4. Adams-Onis Treaty
The Adams-Onus Treaty called for Spain to cede Florida to the United States and
defend the southwestern border of the Louisiana Territory. America assumed five
million dollars worth of claims against Spain and gave up claim to Texas.
5. Monroe Doctrine
The Monroe Doctrine demanded noncolonization in the hemisphere by European
nations, nonintervention in the affairs of New World nations, and pledged
noninterfer-ence by the United States in European affairs.
I. Introduction
Early in the nineteenth century, the North and the West Underwent a transformation. Developments in transportation, agriculture, manufacturing, and finance helped lead to a nation-wide market economy.
II. Transportation and Regionalization
1. Changes in Trade-Routes
In the 1820s, developments such as the National Road and the Erie Canal helped
New England and the Middle Atlantic region come to dominate American economic
life.
2. Canals
The success of the Erie Canal sparked an explosion of canal construction. By
1840, more than three thousand miles of canals had been built. High construction
costs and a constricting economy caused an end to the canal era in the 1850s.
3. Railroads
Railroad development started in the 1830s and quickly came to compete with
canals. By 1860, there were more than thirty-one thousand miles of track.
4. Steamboats
Steamboats also provided mass transportation. They could carry bulk cargo
cheaper than the railroads, and by 1848 the Canard Line developed a regular
steamboat route between New York and Liverpool.
5. Telegraph
Invented in the 1840s, the telegraph revolutionized news gathering, improved
communi-cation, and altered patterns of business and finance.
III. The Market Economy
1. Definition of a Market Economy
The advent of the market economy, which encouraged specialization, meant that
people could sell or purchase goods on the open market.
2. Boom-and-Bust Cycles
Economic growth proved uneven. Periods of contraction and deflation often
countered times of prosperity.
3. Cause of Boom-and-Bust Cycles
The new market economy created boom-and-bust cycles.
IV. Government Promotes Economic Growth
1. Legal Foundations of Commerce
Several Supreme Court cases provided a legal foundation for commerce and the
market economy.
2. State Promotion of the Economy
State governments surpassed the federal government in promoting the economy.
These efforts proved uneven, but they sustained economic growth.
V. The Rise of Manufacturing and Commerce
1. American System of Manufacturing
Americans contributed new manufacturing ideas, such as interchangeable parts
andmachine-tool5 Both innovations paved the way for the massive
industrialization that occurred after the Civil War.
2. Clothing Trades
Moving away from the "putting-out" system, American clothing manufacturers
started to employ tailors to make clothes in the factory.
3, Waltham (Lowell) System
This system combined all manufacturing processes in a single location, thereby
elimi-nating numerous problems for the textile industry and making it the most
successful industry prior to the Civil War.
4. Specialization of Commerce
Beginning with the cotton industry, commerce expanded in conjunction with
manufacturing. Commercial specialization transformed traders into powerful
components of the market economy.
5. Banking and Credit Systems
With reduced restrictions on banking after the fall of the Second Bank of the
United States, numerous banks began operation. With credit and capital readily
available, industrialization expanded rapidly.
VI. Workers and the Workplace
1. Mill Girl Protests
Many teenage girls became factory workers because they wanted some degree of
independence. Poor working conditions gave rise to organized protests and a
concerted effort to lobby the government for labor laws
2. Gender Divisions in Work
The new market economy changed traditional gender relationships, placing more
importance on profit than production. Women's roles were, therefore, considered
less important.
3. Changes in the Workplace
The hierarchical control structure of the factory system worked to reduce
independence. and erode the republican virtues artisans had shared with the
Revolutionary generation.
4. Emergence of a Labor Movement
Although workers enjoyed some successes, such as overcoming the threat of
conspiracy, charges, permanent labor organizations proved difficult to maintain.
VII. Commercial Farming
1. Northeastern Agriculture
In response to problems such as soil erosion and competition from western
farmers, many in the Northeast either moved west or went to work in factories.
Those who stayed on their farms, however, successfully adapted to changing
methods of agriculture.
2. Women's Paid Labor
The commercialization of agriculture meant that women's earnings became
essential for the survival of the family farm.
3. Mechanization of Agriculture
Larger farms in the Old Northwest proved well suited to advances in agriculture.
Using credit, farmers bought machinery, such as the McCormick Reaper, that
increased production.
VIII. Settling and Conquering the West
1. Legends of Pioneers
Stories of great pioneers sparked the imaginations of Americans, but there were
other sides to the familiar legends that many ignored-namely, the help Indians
provided these pioneers and the settlers' irreverence for the environment.
2. Fur Trade
Rugged fur trappers best symbolized the frontier. John Jacob Astor and others
made fortunes in furs, and this trade helped develop the West.
3. California Gold Rush
Discovery of gold in 1848 led to the great California Gold Rush of 1849.
Thousands went west to seek their fortunes, and because the gold seekers had to
be fed, California experienced an agricultural boom.
I. Introduction
Between 1800 and 1860 the South developed into the world's largest slaveholding soci-ety. Southerners-white and black, slaveholders and non-slaveholders-developed a culture quite different from their northern counterparts. Slavery influenced not only southern economics, but also southern values, customs, and laws.
II. Migration, Growth, and the Cotton Boom
1. Rise of the Cotton South
Improvements in cotton breeds, along with the voracious appetite of the English
and northern textile industries for the staple, turned the South to a
cotton-based economy. Small planters and large slave owners planted the crop,
leading to an extension of the slave system in the South.
2. One-Generation Aristocrats
Successes with cotton helped individuals gain great wealth, and as slave owning
became a status symbol many "new" aristocrats owned more slaves than they needed
to produce their crop.
III. An Agrarian Society
1. Population Distribution
The South remained thinly populated and agrarian throughout the antebellum
period The family served as the strongest social institution in the rural South.
2. Weak Urban Sector
Southern cities remained small, and the South developed a unified market economy
more slowly than did the North. Changes in commerce and industry improved
produc-tivity, but they provided few qualitative developments.
IV. Free Southerners: Farmers, Planters, and Free Blacks
1. Folk Culture of the Yeoman
The yeomen emphasized family, church, and community. Although they had
relatively few material goods, the farmers led culturally rich lives. Still,
many aspired to wealth and wanted to become large slaveholders.
2. Landless Whites
A sizable minority of southern whites worked as laborers, and they did not own
land They had only a few household items and livestock that grazed on the open
range.
3. Free Blacks
Nearly a quarter-million free blacks lived in the South in 1860. Most owned no
land and had few material advantages. In the Gulf states, free mulattos sought a
social standing above slaves and other freedmen.
4. Planters
Most planters did not enjoy the lavish lifestyle that legend suggests. Nearly
three- quarters of them owned fewer than ten slaves, but many aspired to join
the wealthy planter elite.
5. Southern Paternalism
Slaveholding men justified their dominance through paternalism. They saw
themselves as the custodians of society, and specifically of the black families
who depended on them. This paternalism helped enforce the prevalent theories
about the complete and permanent inferiority of African Americans.
6. Elite Women's Role
Upper-class southern women grew up learning to be the subordinate companions of
men. They ceded most of their legal rights to their husbands, even though they
had the responsibility for overseeing the maintenance of the plantation house.
V. Slaves and the Conditions of Their Servitude
1. Slaves' Diet, Clothing, and Housing
Although slaves usually received adequate nourishment, they had a plain and
monoto-nous diet. They owned few clothes, and typically they lived in small one
room cabins.
2.Slaves' Work Routine
Long hours in large work gangs characterized the slave work regime. Planters
aimed to keep their hands busy all the time, but many slaves resisted overwork
by slacking off whenever they could.
3. Physical and Mental Abuse of Slaves
Physical and Mental Abuse of Slaves Whippings occurred throughout the South,
although generally more so on large farms than on small ones. The mental cruelty
of slavery-the hopeless sense of bondage and coercion with no hope for the
future-provided the cruelest element of the system.
4. Slaves' Attitudes Toward Whites
Most slaves felt antagonism and hatred toward whites, feelings that bred
resistance bitterness, and distrust.
VI. Slave Culture and Everyday Life
1. Influence of African Culture
African influence remained strong in the slave community, with slaves'
appearance, entertainment, and superstitions helping to provide them with a
sense of their past.
2. Slaves' Religion
Christianity offered slaves an important means of coping with bondage, and their
faith helped them attain a sense of racial identity.
3. Slaves' Family Life
Family provided a central part of slaves' existence, and they lived in the fear
that members of their families might be sold to other masters
4. Sex Roles in Slavery
Sex roles generally conformed to those of whites, but they also revealed West
African customs. After work in the field was done, men did "outdoor" jobs and
women did "indoor" jobs. Slave work routines brought slave women together in a
sense of sister-hood.
5. Resistance to Slavery
Despite some examples of violent rebellions, most slaves practiced nonviolent
forms of resistance, such as occasionally stealing food, negotiating for better
working conditions, or temporarily running away.
VII. Harmony and Tension in a Slave Society
1. Slavery as the Basis of Wealth and Social Standing
Slavery served as the basis of wealth and social standing, and the institution
therefore had a profound influence on southern values and mores.
2. Aristocratic Values and Frontier Individualism
The aristocratic values of lineage, privilege, pride, and refinement gained a
substantial foothold among all levels of southern society. In the recently
settled areas, however, frontier values of courage and self-reliance remained
the norm.
3. Movements for Electoral Reform
In the 1820s and 1830s many small farmers worked to enact electoral and other
reforms in the planter-dominated government. On the whole, however, yeomen and
planters lived independent of one another.
4. Hardening of Class Lines
After 1830, the gap between the classes widened. Although urban Southerners
suffered economic problems, planters remained relatively secure because of their
control over government in the Old South.
I. Introduction
Social and economic prospects in the United States brought thousands of immigrants to America's shores between 1800 and 1860. At the same time, the expanding market economy led to numerous social changes.
II. Country Life
1. Farm Communities
Farm families escaped isolation in the farm villages, with their churches,
stores, taverns, and post offices.
2. Shakers
The Shakers became one of the first groups of Americans to experiment with
utopian communities.
3. Mormon Community of Saints
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints developed into the most
successful communal group.
4. Brook Farm
Brook Farm played a significant role in fostering a national literature
II. City Life
1. Urban Growth
Between 1800 and 1860, the United States underwent massive urbanization,
especially in the northeast.
2. New York City
New York had a population of eight hundred thousand by 1860. This rapid growth
eventually forced the city government to take over public services
3. Horace Mann and Public Schools
Horace Mann helped generate widespread interest in a secular system of
education.
4. Leisure
Urban dwellers engaged in traditional indoor sports and recreation, but reading
became more accepted and the theater provided an important source of enjoyment.
5. Sports
Sports such as horse racing, boxing, and eventually baseball, became popular.
City dwellers became less spontaneous, relying more on formal rules.
6. City Life
The growth of cities encouraged people to form associations and clubs, while
growing neighborhoods created distinctive youth cultures
7. Urban Riots
City dwellers often rioted, forcing many cities to establish professional police
forces in response to the violence
IV. Extremes of Wealth
1. Differences in Wealth
The egalitarian view of life in America diminished as a new aristocracy based on
money and power emerged.
2. Urban Poverty
Growing cities generated a large class of urban poor that resented labor
competition from immigrants.
3. The Urban Elite
The urban elite thrived in this period, often using inherited wealth to increase
their
4. The Middle Class
A comfortable middle class existed in urban America-hard-working families who
enjoyed the fruits of the expanding market economy.
V. Women and the Family
1. Working Women
Many women viewed working in mills, department stores, or schools as temporary
occupations before marriage. The poor, widows, and free African Americans,
however, worked to support their families.
2. Decline in the Birthrate
The birthrate declined, partly because in the market economy smaller families
seemed more economical.
3. Birth Control
Americans employed several forms of contraception, and if these failed abortion
was also an option.
4. Sarah Ripley Stearns
Sarah Ripley Stearns traced the changing roles and opportunities for women in
her extensive diary.
5. Single Women
Many women decided to remain single, pursue their own interests, and become
indepen-dent.
VI. Immigrant Lives in America
1. Promotion of Immigration
Numerous enterprises recruited immigrants to the United States, and most of the
new-comers ended up in the cities.
2. Immigrant Disenchantment
Many immigrants grew dissatisfied with life in the United States, and thousands
of them returned home.
3. Irish Immigrants
Following the Potato Famine, more than a million Irish emigrants came to the
United States. Most of them were Catholics who settled in the urban areas of the
North.
4. And-Catholicism
Many people feared that emigrants subverted American values, leading to
widespread anti-Catholicism and anti-Irish sentiment.
5. German Immigrants
By 1854, Germans became the largest immigrant group. Most of them settled in
small towns to preserve their cultural identities, but they also had major
influences on cities such as Milwaukee and Cincinnati..
6. Hispanics
Many Hispanics became Americans with the annexation of Texas, the Mexican War,
and the Gadsden Purchase. Their culture persisted, but they lost economic
influence.
VII. Indian Resistance and Removal
1. Indian Resistance
The Shawnees typified Indian resistance. They had to move numerous times because
of white encroachment, but they maintained their language and culture.
2. Indian Policy
The government initially followed a policy of assimilating Indians, but land
disputes caused troubles for the tribes.
3. Indian Removal
The southern tribes had maintained much of their land after the War of 1812. The
government eventually forced these tribes to move to the west.
4. Cherokees
The Cherokees faced removal when the state of Georgia declared sovereignty over
them.
5. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
Chief John Ross successfully sued Georgia in federal court, but President Andrew
Jackson ignored the decision.
6. Trail of Tears
The government forced the southern Indians to move west, and nearly one-quarter
of them died along the way.
I. Introduction
The enormous transformation of the United States after the War of 1812 sparked a fervor for reform beginning in the 1830s.
II. From Revival to Reform
1. Second Great Awakening
Religion motivated much of the social reform. The Second Great Awakening brought
a sense of goodness for all people, regardless of theology.
2. Role of Women
Women proved to be the most ardent supporters of evangelism and reform.
3. From Revival to Reform
Women soon transformed the emotionalism of revivals into an enthusiasm for moral
reform by establishing organizations such as the Female Moral Reform Society.
III. Temperance and Asylums
1. Temperance Societies
One of the earliest and strongest concerns for reform resulted in a campaign
against the use of alcohol.
2. Lotteries
Gambling offered another target for reformers, and between 1830 and 1860 every
state in the union outlawed lotteries.
3. Penitentiaries
Asylums and penitentiaries also came under scrutiny as reformers worked to
improve these institutions.
IV. Anti-masonry
1. Morgan Affair
William Morgan, a disillusioned Mason, published a book in 1826 exposing Masonic
practice. His subsequent murder started the Anti-masonry movement.
2. Convention System
As Anti-masons gained wider support, they organized politically, introducing the
nomi-nating convention.
V. Abolitionism and the Women's Movement
1. Black Abolitionists
African Americans organized at least fifty abolitionist societies in the United
States.
2. William Lloyd Garrison
William Lloyd Garrison became one of the first white abolitionists to demand
immedi-ate emancipation.
3. Immediatists
A number of reformers agreed with Garrison, and in their zeal they founded the
Ameri-can Anti-slavery Society.
4. Opposition to Abolitionists
Many Americans responded violently to abolitionism.
5. Gag Rule
In an effort to avoid answering abolitionist petitions, Congress automatically
tabled them from 1836 to 1844.
6. Women Abolitionists
Women found they could take a more prominent role in the immediatist movement
that in any previous reform.
7. Women's Rights
Women such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott compared their position
in society to that of slaves.
VI. Jacksonianism and the Beginnings of Modern Party Politics
1. End of the Caucas System
Popular participation in politics led to the demise of nominating the president
by Con-gressional caucus.
2. Andrew Jackson
Jackson, the first president from the West, gained his popularity from a
lifetime of bold achievements.
3. Democrats
The Democrats enjoyed widespread support and fostered a Jeffersonian agrarian
view- point.
VII. The Nullification and Bank Controversies
1. Webster-Hayne Debate
Daniel Webster of New Hampshire debated Robert Y. Hayne of Sooth Carolina in
Congress on the issue of nullification in 1830.
2. Nullification Crisis
When South Carolina nullified the Tariff of 1832, Jackson responded by having
Con-gress issue the Force Act. He also recommended tariff reduction, which
temporarily ended the crisis.
3. Second Bank of the United States
The rechartering of the Second Bank of the United States became me central issue
in the 1832 election,
4. Jackson's Second Term
Jackson tried to ensure that the national bank would never be rechartered, and
he deposited federal funds in "pet" state banks. Land speculation, however, soon
threatened the economy.
5. Specie Circular
Jackson's "hard-money" policy that required payment in specie to buy federal
lands failed to stop speculation.
VIII. The Whig Challenge and the Second Party System
1. Whigs
The Whigs developed as an opposition party to Jackson, and they sought to
recharter the national bank, create an active federal government, and promote
reform.
2. Whigs and Reformers
Whig policies embodied the beliefs of many reformers, but in 1836 Democrat
Martin Van Buren enjoyed enough broad-based support to win the presidency.
3. Martin Van Buren and Hard Times
Just after the election of 1836, the American credit system collapsed. Van
Buren's hard money policies sent the economy spiraling downward.
4. Election of 1840
The Whig William Henry Harrison emulated the methods of the Democrats to win the
election of 1840. He died within a month of taking office, however, and John
Tyler could not hold the support of Congressional Whigs.
5. Anglo-American Tensions
The United States and Great Britain neared war over several issues in the late
1830s and early 1840s.
IX. Manifest Destiny and Expansionism
1. Republic of Texas
When Texas won independence from Mexico in 1836, many people sought annexation
to the United States. The volatile slavery issue, however, prevented this
action.
2. Oregon Fever
In the early 1840s, thousands of settlers traveled west on the Oregon Trail.
3. Election of 1844
Democrat James K. Polk won election over Henry Clay on a platform of the
occupation of the entire Oregon territory and the annexation of Texas,
I. Introduction
Territorial expansion brought the slavery question once again to the forefront. This volatile issue gave rise to a new political party, the Republicans, and moved the nation closer to war.
II. Conflict Begins: The Mexican War
1. Idea of a Slave Power
Many Northerners opposed the Mexican War, insisting that its causes could be
found in a slaveholding oligarchy who intended to ensure the institution of
slavery.
2. Wilmot Proviso
Congressman David Wilmot proposed a bill that outlawed slavery in territories
gained from Mexico, but his proposal failed in the Senate. The Proviso
subsequently became a rallying cry for abolitionists.
3. Treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo
A treaty with Mexico gave the United States possession of California and the New
Mexico Territory, and recognized the Rio Grande as the Texas border. The United
States agreed to pay the claims of American citizens against Mexico and to give
Mexico another fifteen million dollars.
4. Election of 1848 and Popular Sovereignty :
Slavery in the territories emerged as the primary issue in the 1848 election.
The Demo-crat Lewis Cass supported popular sovereignty, allowing Whig
slaveholder Zachary Taylor to win the presidency with the Southern vote.
III. Territorial Problems Are Compromised but Re-emerge
1. Compromise of 1850
California's request to enter the Union as a free state sparked the first major
political conflict following the Mexican War. Although Henry Clay's omnibus bil1
did not pass, each compromise measure gained congressional support.
2. Fugitive Slave Act
An important facet of the compromise strengthened Southerners' ability to
capture escaped slaves. Abolitionists sharply protested this law.
3. Uncle Tom's Cabin
Harriet Beecher Stowe's book enthralled Northerners by painting a portrait of
the suffering of slaves, a portrayal that appalled white Southerners.
4. Pro-slavery Theories
Many Southerners advanced pseudoscientific data to justify keeping blacks in
servitude, but others simply believed that blacks and whites could never live
together on an equal basis.
5. Election of 1852
Franklin Pierce's victory gave Southerners hope because he believed that each
section's rights should be defended and because he supported the Fugitive Slave
Act.
IV. Territorial Problems Shatter the Party System
1. Kansas-Nebraska Bill
This bill, proposed by Stephen A. Douglas, exposed the complexity of popular
sover-eignty, Discord over the bill helped split the Whigs, and the party fell
apart.
2. The New Republican Party
The Kansas-Nebraska Bill encouraged antislavery Whigs and Democrats, Free-Soilers,
and other reformers to form the Republican Party, which grew rapidly in the
North.
3. Know-Nothings
The American Party, called Know-Nothings, started as an and-immigrant party that
exploited fears of foreigners,
4. Realignment of Political System
The Republicans, Democrats, and Know-Nothings all sought to attract former
Whigs.
5. Republican Appeals
The Republicans appealed to those voters interested in internal improvements,
federal land grants, higher tariffs, and the economic development of the West.
6. Republican Ideology
To broaden their ideology beyond antislavery, the Republicans trumpeted "Free
Soil, Free Labor, Free Men."
7. Southern Democrats
Southern Democrats attracted slaveholders from among the former Whigs. The party
used racial fears to keep the political alliance between yeomen and planters
intact.
8. Bleeding Kansas
When the Kansas-Nebraska Act passed, thousands of pro-slavery and antislavery
people poured into Kansas, leading to massive bloodshed in the territory.
V. Slavery and the Nation's Future
1. Dred Scott Case
This case ruled that blacks could not be citizens and that Congress had no power
to bar slavery in the territories.
2. Abraham Lincoln on the Slave Power
Lincoln stressed that slavery in the territories affected al1 citizens of the
United States because if left unchecked slavery would soon grow into a
nationwide institution.
3. Stephen Douglas Proposes the Freeport Doctrine
During his 1858 Illinois Senatorial campaign against Lincoln, Douglas insisted
that territorial legislatures could effectively end slavery by not supporting
it.
VI. The Breakup of the Union
1. Splintering of the Democratic Party
At the 1860 Democratic convention Douglas refused to support the southern
position on the territories. Southern delegates walked out and nominated John
Breckenridge for President.
2. Election of 1860
Lincoln won this election on a sectional basis, with the southern votes split
between Douglas, Breckenridge, and Bell. When Republicans refused to accept the
Crittendon Compromise, Southerners threatened secession.
3. Secession of South Carolina
On December 20, 1860, South Carolina seceded from the Union, a step that enticed
other southern states to follow.
4. Confederate States of America
By February 1861, seven states had formed the Confederate States of America.
Upon inauguration, Lincoln worked to uphold federal authority without war.
5. Attack on Fort Sumter
At Fort Sumter in South Carolina, the Confederates could acquiesce to Lincoln's
intent to supply the federal installation or they could attack the garrison. In
April, Southerners bombarded the fort and forced its surrender.
I. Introduction
Northerners and Southerners supported the war for a variety of reasons, such as ending slavery, preserving the Union, defending states' rights, or protecting the Confederacy. Whatever thc purpose of the war, it brought tremendous change to the United States as the conflict spawned new social and racial arrangements in the nation.
II. "Fighting Means Killing"
1. Battle of Bull Run
Upon Lincoln's call for volunteers to restore the Union, additional states from
the upper South seceded. Southerners faced the war with an optimism that grew
stronger following the Confederate victory at Bull Run.
2. Union Naval Campaign
Early in the war Federal ships began to blockade the South, a tactic that
enjoyed mixed results.
3. Grant's Campaign in Tennessee
Thc first great campaign of the war unfolded as Ulysses S. Grant led troops from
Illinois into Tennessee.
4. Davis Orders an Offensive
Following early southern victories, President Jefferson Davis ordered his armies
to engage in offensive tactics.
III. War Transforms the South
1. Confederacy Resorts to a Draft
When the South failed to achieve a quick victory, the Confederacy resorted to
conscription,
2. Centralization of Power in the South
In the South, the tradition of localism and states' rights gave way to
centralization as the Confederacy fought to preserve itself.
3. Effects of War on Southern Cities and Industry
Wartime needs led to a new bureaucracy and an emerging industrialism in the
South.
4. Change in the Southern Woman's Role
With men off to fight, women began to assume many of the responsibilities males
had previously held.
5. Human Suffering in the South
The war caused economic dislocations in the South that resulted in great
suffering for many people.
6. Hoarding and Runaway Inflation in the South
The Federal blockade created shortages of important commodities in the South,
while Confederate financial policies generated intense price inflation.
7. Inequities of thc Confederate Draft
Wealthier Southerners seemed immune to many of the problems that others faced,
and anger over the elite's exemptions from conscription led to tensions in the
South.
IV. The Northern Economy Copes with War
1. Initial Slump in Northern Business
The war generally spurred economic activity in the North, but the initial loss
of southern markets caused some disruptions for thc Union.
2. Effects of War On Northern Industry and Agriculture
Federal spending helped many businessmen and farmers because the government
needed vast amounts of material to win the war. Fiscal policy, especially the
sale of war bonds, also shaped the northern economy.
3. New Militancy Among Northern Workers
Inflation and a tight job market produced problems for me working class,
difficulties mat led to a growing interest in trade unionism.
4. Wartime Benefits to Northern Business
Railroads and other companies with government contracts earned especially high
profits, while new land policies and high tariffs encouraged economic activity.
V. Wartime Society in me Norm
Wartime Powers of me U. S. Executive The war fostered great patriotism in me North, but me conflict also led to increased power for the President.
2. Self-indulgence versus Sacrifice in the North
Many Americans ostentatiously displayed their new wealth, but others advanced
more idealistic values.
3. Walt Whitman
The poetry of Walt Whitman reveals the dynamic nature of northern society during
me war.
VI. The Strange Advent of Emancipation
1. Lincoln's Plan for Gradual Emancipation
Lincoln understood the political dangers of me slavery issue and at first shied
away from advocating abolition. Eventually, he began suggesting that Southerners
gradually free their bondspersons.
2. Confiscation Acts
Radical Republicans demanded immediate emancipation. One of their first efforts
to achieve it came with laws allowing the confiscation of slaves as
"contraband."
3. Emancipation Proclamations
In September 1862, Lincoln announced a plan to free slaves in me Confederate
states. This ambiguous proclamation provided Lincoln with some political
benefits, but by 1864 he recognized me need for a stronger stand on me slave
issue.
4. Hampton Roads Conference
At a conference with southern representatives, Lincoln recognized that a
restored South could influence the ultimate resolution of the slavery question.
5. Davis's Plan for Emancipation
Jefferson Davis proposed emancipation of me slaves in exchange for military
service against me Union. Southern resistance to abolition proved powerful,
however, and Davis could only make a limited effort to free the slaves.
VII. The Soldier's War
1. Realities of a Soldier's Life
Soldiers had to witness mass violence and bloodshed, live on paltry amounts of
food, and endure all kinds of weather,
VIII. The Tide of Battle Begins to Turn
1. Battle of Chancellorsville
On the battlefield, the southern army began the 1863 campaign with a victory at
Chancellorsville, Virginia.
2. Battle of Gettysburg
In July 1863, me Union army scored a major victory at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania,
inflicting heavy losses on Lee's army.
IX. Disintegration of Confederate Unity
1. Food Riots in Southern Cities
Opposition to war grew in me South as me fighting dragged on. Much of the
discord grew out of class differences and led to food riots in several cities.
2. Desertions from the Confederate Army
As conditions at home deteriorated, many southern soldiers reacted by deserting
from the army.
3. Southern Peace Movements
From 1863 on, military defeats and social disruptions fueled a growing
discontent with the war. For many people the solution seemed to be simply to
give up on the southern cause.
X. Antiwar Sentiment in the North
1. Peace Democrats
Some Northerners expressed unhappiness with the war, but much of the northern
discord reflected political party differences rather than support for the
Confederacy.
2. New York City Draft Riot
One sharp statement of northern anger over the war came in the New York City
draft riots. In theory aimed at conscription, these violent demonstrations
revealed powerful underlying class and racial tensions.
Xl. Northern Pressure and Southern Will
1. Northern Diplomatic Strategy
Lincoln understood the importance of European relations, and he worked
diligently to prevent European support of the Confederacy.
2. Heavy Losses Force Lee's Surrender
In 1864, Union forces captured Atlanta and began marching through the eastern
portions of the South. Lee could not stand up to the Federal forces, leading him
to surrender the Army of Northern Virginia in April 1865.
XII. Costs and Effects
1. Casualties
About six hundred thousand Americans died, more deaths than occurred in all the
wars prior to Vietnam.
2. Financial Cost of the War
The costs of the war ranged into the billions of dollars, while the social
burden to the South remains incalculable. Still, the war left unresolved the
crucial issue of the place of African Americans in the United States.
I. Introduction
The end of the Civil War brought profound changes to the United States. Reconstruction changed some things, but it did little regarding social equality and political turmoil. In the end, the government established black suffrage, but this reform proved insufficient to remake the South or to guarantee human rights.
II. Equality: The Unresolved Issue
1. Blacks' Desire for Land
Next to freedom, blacks wanted land most of all. Since they could not secure
solid support in the North, however, few obtained their dream of independence.
III. Johnson's Reconstruction Plan
1. Lincoln's Reconstruction Plan
Many Republicans viewed Lincoln's ten-percent plan as too lenient. Johnson built
on this plan, but he denied several classes of Southerners amnesty.
2. Oaths of Amnesty and New State Governments
Johnson hoped to keep prewar leaders from participating in the Reconstructed
South. Nevertheless, he ended up pardoning most of them and thus restored the
old elite.
3. Black Codes
Johnson's pardons upset many Republicans, but the discriminatory black codes
revealed the depth of southern defiance.
IV. The Congressional Reconstruction Plan
1. The Radicals
The Radicals wanted to transform the South, and they were willing to exclude it
from the Union until they had achieved their goal.
2. Congress Struggles for a Compromise
Congress worked to extend the Freedmen's Bureau and to pass a civil rights law
coun-teracting the black codes. Johnson vetoed these bills, ending hopes of
compromise.
3. Fourteenth Amendment
This amendment gave citizenship to freedmen, prohibited states from interfering
with constitutional rights, and punished any state that restricted the right to
vote.
4. Southern Rejection of the Fourteenth Amendment
All southern states except Tennessee rejected the Fourteenth Amendment. Having
won Overwhelmingly in the 1 g66 congressional elections, Republicans decided to
form new southern state governments.
5. Reconstruction Act of 1867
Congress set up five military districts in the South, required congressional
approval of all new state constitutions, and declared that southern states must
accept the Fourteenth Amendment.
6. Impeachment of President Johnson
After Johnson removed Secretary of War Stanton, Congress impeached the
president. Although acquitted in the Senate, Johnson suffered politically.
7. Fifteenth Amendment
In 1869 Radicals succeeded in passing the Fifteenth Amendment, which prohibited
denying the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of
servitude." Voting rights of women could still be denied.
V. Reconstruction Politics in the South
1. White Resistance
Whites in the South resisted Reconstruction. Some denied freedom to their
slaves, while others prevented blacks from getting land.
2. Triumph of Republican Governments
Republican victory in the South meant that for the first time black citizens
gained political office. Southern Republicans worked to build white support for
the party
3. Industrialization
Republican governments tried to industrialize the South, but higher taxes for
that purpose drew money away from education and other reforms.
4. Other Republican Policies
Economic progress remained uppermost in the minds of most southern blacks. They
accepted segregated facilities in return for other opportunities.
5. Carpetbaggers and Scalawags
Northerners seeking economic opportunity, or "carpetbaggers," and white
Southerners who supported the Republicans, or "scalawags," particularly offended
Southerners.
6. Ku Klux Klan
The Ku Klux Klan terrorized black leaders in an effort to curb their support for
the Republicans.
7. Failure of Reconstruction
A number of things brought about the collapse of the Republican regimes, forcing
them out of office before they instituted social and economic reforms.
VI. The Social and Economic Meaning of Freedom
1. Education for Blacks
Many African Americans eagerly sought an education. Federal aid and northern
charity helped start thousands of schools for freedmen in the South.
2. Reunification of Black Families
Relying on black community in the South, thousands of former slaves began
odysseys to find family members.
3. Founding of Black Churches
In an effort to gain more independence from whites, African Americans
established their own churches, which became the social center of their new
freedom.
4. Rise of the Sharecropping System
Blacks could not get credit, and sharecropping became widespread. Owners often
cheated their tenants.
5. Overdependence on Cotton
Most southern farmers grew cotton, but a weak market created low prices that
made dependence on cotton a mistake. Many white farmers lost their land as a
result.
VII. Reconstruction's Decline and Fall
1. Election of 1868
Ulysses S. Grant, who won the presidency in 1868, administered Radical
Reconstruction rather than actively supporting it. Although he ordered troops to
stop the violence in the South, military rule did not really exist under his
leadership.
2. Liberal Republicans Revolt
Liberal Republicans bolted the party in 1872 and nominated Horace Greeley for
presi-dent, hoping to enact civil service and other government reforms.
3. Amnesty Act
In 1872, Congress offered amnesty to most remaining former Confederates, and in
1875 it offered a watered-down Civil Rights Act that the Supreme Court
eventually struck down.
4. Greenbacks Versus Sound Money
Many Americans wanted to keep "greenbacks" in circulation, but Grant, along with
many Congressmen, industrialists, and financiers, supported sound money.
5. Supreme Court Decisions on Reconstruction
Supreme Court decisions, by narrowing the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment
and by denying equal rights, encouraged the northern retreat from
Reconstruction.
6. Election of 1876
The disputed election between Rutherford B. Hayes and Samuel Tilden resulted in
the Compromise of 1877, effectively ending Reconstruction in the South.
7. Black Exodusers
Tens of thousands of southern African Americans felt betrayed by the election of
1876 and decided to leave the South where they could no longer hope for equal
rights.